Choose one group whom you believe is inadequately represented in the media. Discuss some examples of how this group is represented and why the group is represented in this way?
In the past, the biggest problem Asians have been faced with is being invisible in the media. However, successful television programmes such as “Goodness Gracious Me”, “Mind Your Language” and “Bharji on the beach” have increased the awareness of Asians. Despite these successful television programmes there is still a lack of Asians and the vast amount portrayed are represented inadequately represented seeing that in each of these successful television shows the Asians have been placed in conventional stereotypical roles. The stereotypes used are to create humour and this reinforces the role of the “brown clown” theorised by Stuart Hall.
Furthermore, by placing Asians in these comedy roles reinforces Nandy’s theory on “the other” which gives makes them less threatening to the white audiences because the comical characteristics given make them less inspirational as the audiences are encourage to laugh at them. An example that illustrates this is “Mind Your Language” where the audiences are laughing at Ali’s misunderstandings and his accent. On the other hand, films like “Bombay Dreams” (2004, Lena Koppel) emphasises the glamorous aspect of Asian culture. This is further promoted by British celebrity Elizabeth Hurley as she was dressed in a sari to her wedding which demonstrates how western society these days are acceptable to Asian culture.
Whereas, in the past Asian clothing such as salwar kameez were seen as “naff” which made Asians feel embarrassed to be seen in them. An example of a film that illustrates this is “Anita and Me” (2002, Meera Syal) a comedy drama and a coming of age film set in the 1970s, showing a young Asian girl Meena ashamed to be seen in Indian clothes, as she aspires to be more like Anita a white teenage girl who is represented as glamorous and attractive. This is accomplished through showing her in a point of view shot of her walking out of smoke in slow motion.
However, the change of attitudes to Asians clothing can be down to films like “Bend it like Beckham” (2002, Gurinder Chadha) where the protagonists are shown in both western and Asian clothing and comfortable in it. This mixing of the two cultures supports Homi Bhabha’s theory on the “third space” which is a hybrid of the two cultures giving the audience something new, different and unrecognisable so that a new area of recognition and meaning is created. Furthermore, the idea of the “third space” is promoted in the current music industry today as mainstream hip-hop artists like Dr Dre, Redman and Bubba Sparxxx have composed music videos were they have English lyrics with Indian music exemplifying and promoting Asian culture.
Furthermore, the increase of Asians and Asian culture is down to migration which now makes them 3.5% of the total UK population. Having this many Asians has helped society become more multicultural and progressive and this is evident because of the “brown pound” which is becoming stronger as modern Asians are in high paid jobs such as a doctor’s work of line. Despite, this achievement, successful animated television programme “The Simpsons” show Apu the token Asian in the stereotypical “shopkeeper” role, reinforcing traditional stereotypes. But then again, it could be argued that this stereotype is true as most Asians are still shopkeepers or work in shops as a pose to offices. Additionally, the September 11th attacks in America have publicized Asians in a negative light as they are shown as terrorists who are seen as uncivilised, barbaric and devious; again supporting Nandy’s theory on “the other”. As a result of this today society suffers moral panic causing Islamophobia to be evident.
In conclusion, 78% of the Asians feel they are better represented but lack of Asians in the media still remain low as BBC ex general Gregg Dyke states how the “BBC are hideously white” (2002) which to some extent goes against it’s remit as they have to reflect cultural diversity and having only 4% of ethnic minorities in management roles reflects how Asians still are inadequately represented.
Sunday, May 27, 2007
Plan genre: June 06a
It has been argued that all genre texts promote a set of values related to the contexts in which they are produced. How far do you agree?
Agree:
Sex=death is the ideology promoted in films like “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock), “Halloween” (1978, John Carpenter) where both the female characters who engage in sexual intercourse are punished by being killed.
Mothers are crazy/un reliable is another ideology promoted in films like “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock), “Friday the 13th” (1980, Sean S Cunningham) where it is the mother either mentally or physically killing the victims. This helps reinforce misogyny as the audience are position to dislike this women. Furthermore in early slasher, women are subordinate to men therefore the patriarchy is reinforced because even though the final girl exists she still relies on the help of a man.
Family values= as in Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper) there is a scene where the family sit around the table to promote how family is important and that they should eat together.
Hypodermic model:
♥ audiences pick up the dominant reading
♥ audiences are passive
Disagree:
Uses and gratification theory:
Audience watch films for different reasons
Audience are active
There is no dominant reading- David Morley
Scream- relies on active audience that have knowledge of the previous slasher films like Prom Date, Psycho, Texas Chainsaw Massacre
Agree:
Sex=death is the ideology promoted in films like “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock), “Halloween” (1978, John Carpenter) where both the female characters who engage in sexual intercourse are punished by being killed.
Mothers are crazy/un reliable is another ideology promoted in films like “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock), “Friday the 13th” (1980, Sean S Cunningham) where it is the mother either mentally or physically killing the victims. This helps reinforce misogyny as the audience are position to dislike this women. Furthermore in early slasher, women are subordinate to men therefore the patriarchy is reinforced because even though the final girl exists she still relies on the help of a man.
Family values= as in Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper) there is a scene where the family sit around the table to promote how family is important and that they should eat together.
Hypodermic model:
♥ audiences pick up the dominant reading
♥ audiences are passive
Disagree:
Uses and gratification theory:
Audience watch films for different reasons
Audience are active
There is no dominant reading- David Morley
Scream- relies on active audience that have knowledge of the previous slasher films like Prom Date, Psycho, Texas Chainsaw Massacre
Plan (Jan 07A) representation
Examine the reasons why stereotypes within the media have changed over time.
Define stereotype:
Stereotyping is categorising people into groups based on characteristics they share in common.
Why they exist:
♥ Short hand for audience
♥ There to be challenged
Examples and why they change:
♥ feminism
Film:
Women are more independent, active- drive the narrative forward this challenges the stereotype of women being “looked-at-ness”
Kill bill- main protagonist- we identify with Uma Thurman
Music:
More female artists e.g. girl bands, female singers
It wasn’t common for women compose songs
Spice girls promoted “girl power”
Newspaper:
Rebekah wade editor for successful tabloid paper “The Sun” where in the past news and politics was totally male dominated but there a few females there now.
♥ Increase in the “brown pound”-
Television:
Goodness Gracious Me
Family trying to be like the “Brown Englishman”
♥ Audience
The audience are broader now because of immigration. Therefore institutions like the BBC need to cater for them.
They have to help promote the Diversity policy which is to Attempt to reflect diverse people whether it is TV, radio or online and the Cultural diversity network which is an organisation that tries to make sure that there are more ethnic minorities on TV
Define stereotype:
Stereotyping is categorising people into groups based on characteristics they share in common.
Why they exist:
♥ Short hand for audience
♥ There to be challenged
Examples and why they change:
♥ feminism
Film:
Women are more independent, active- drive the narrative forward this challenges the stereotype of women being “looked-at-ness”
Kill bill- main protagonist- we identify with Uma Thurman
Music:
More female artists e.g. girl bands, female singers
It wasn’t common for women compose songs
Spice girls promoted “girl power”
Newspaper:
Rebekah wade editor for successful tabloid paper “The Sun” where in the past news and politics was totally male dominated but there a few females there now.
♥ Increase in the “brown pound”-
Television:
Goodness Gracious Me
Family trying to be like the “Brown Englishman”
♥ Audience
The audience are broader now because of immigration. Therefore institutions like the BBC need to cater for them.
They have to help promote the Diversity policy which is to Attempt to reflect diverse people whether it is TV, radio or online and the Cultural diversity network which is an organisation that tries to make sure that there are more ethnic minorities on TV
Saturday, May 26, 2007
Slasher film genre
Narrative ingredients that make slasher films attractive to audiences:
♥ Gory killings
♥ Chase between final girl and killer
♥ Open ending/ no closure
♥ Taking on the challenge to be scared
♥ Masochistic- identify with victims
♥ Sadistic- identify with the killer
♥ Visceral – heart beating fast
♥ Intellectual- thriller/ “who dun nit” enigma
♥ Counter culture attraction- being able to break moral and legal regulations
♥ Counter reading- repertoire of elements this is created by fan groups or create genre through their shared interest. E.g. slasher created from fans who like elements of both horror and thriller.
♥ Audience are taking of the challenge to be scared and can release their taboo desires in a safe social context.
Iconography of slasher films:
♥ Mask
♥ Murder weapon e.g. Knife (phallic object)
♥ Psycho killer
♥ Victims
♥ Final girl
♥ Isolated location
♥ Screaming
♥ Blood
♥ Bad weather
♥ Dead bodies/corpses
♥ Phone call
♥ Enigmatic Shadows
♥ Gory killings
♥ Chase between final girl and killer
♥ Open ending/ no closure
♥ Taking on the challenge to be scared
♥ Masochistic- identify with victims
♥ Sadistic- identify with the killer
♥ Visceral – heart beating fast
♥ Intellectual- thriller/ “who dun nit” enigma
♥ Counter culture attraction- being able to break moral and legal regulations
♥ Counter reading- repertoire of elements this is created by fan groups or create genre through their shared interest. E.g. slasher created from fans who like elements of both horror and thriller.
♥ Audience are taking of the challenge to be scared and can release their taboo desires in a safe social context.
Iconography of slasher films:
♥ Mask
♥ Murder weapon e.g. Knife (phallic object)
♥ Psycho killer
♥ Victims
♥ Final girl
♥ Isolated location
♥ Screaming
♥ Blood
♥ Bad weather
♥ Dead bodies/corpses
♥ Phone call
♥ Enigmatic Shadows
Narrative theory:
Propp character roles:
♥ Hero- in contemporary slasher is the final girl
Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock) - hero is Sam Loomis because he saves her from Lila Crane
Texas chainsaw massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper) - hero is final girl sally
Halloween (1978, john carpenter) – Laurie
Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham) Alice
Nightmare on elm street (1984, Wes Craven) Nancy- she saves herself
Scream (1996, Wes Craven) Sidney Prescott
Texas chainsaw massacre remake (2003, Marcus Nispel) final girl Erin
♥ Villain/s
Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock) Norman Bates/ mother
Texas chainsaw massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper) Leatherface, hitchhiker, old man
Halloween (1978, john carpenter) Michael Myers
Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham) Mrs Voorhees
Nightmare on elm street (1984, Wes Craven) Freddy Kruger
Scream (1996, Wes Craven) Billy Loomis and Stuart
Texas chainsaw massacre remake (2003, Marcus Nispel) Leatherface and his family
♥ Helper
Psycho remake (1998, Gus Van Sant) Sam Loomis as he hits Norman in the head with a pan
Lila kicks him in the face
Halloween (1978, John Carpenter) Dr. Sam Loomis is the helper as he shoots Michael which results him falling out the window
Scream (1996, Wes Craven) - Gale Weathers
Todorov narrative structure:
Does not follow as there is no closure at the end as the killer usually escapes
Or the killer is not dead
However, in scream both killers are killed off so there is a resolution and a sense of closure and does conform to Todorov’s narrative structure.
Strauss binary oppositions:
Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock):
♥ Mother vs. Norman
♥ Killer vs. victim
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Female vs. male
♥ Mother vs. son
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Hate vs. love
♥ Life vs. death
Texas chainsaw massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper):
♥ Male vs. female
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Life vs. death
♥ Killer vs. victim
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Heroine vs. villain
Halloween (1978, John Carpenter):
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Final girl vs. killer
♥ Victim vs. killer
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Life vs. death
Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham):
♥ Killer vs. victim
♥ Final girl vs. killer
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Life vs. death
♥ Mother vs. son
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Heroine vs. villain
Nightmare on elm street (1984, Wes Craven):
♥ Authority figures vs. teenagers
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Reality vs. dream
♥ Female vs. male
♥ Life vs. death
♥ Parents vs. Freddy
♥ Victims vs. killer
Scream (1996, Wes Craven):
♥ Authority figures vs. teenagers
♥ Male vs. female
♥ Final girl vs. killer
♥ Heroine vs. villain
♥ Mental vs. sane
Texas chainsaw massacre remake (2003, Marcus Nispel):
♥ Teenagers vs. authority figures
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Life vs. death
Switchblade romance/ Haute tension (2003, Alexandre Aja):
♥ Love vs. hate
♥ Male vs. female
♥ Good vs. evil
♥ Mental vs. sane
♥ Life vs. death
Barthes Roland
Enigma code- used in:
♥ Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock)
♥ Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham)
♥ Scream (1996, Wes Craven)
useful notes from the debates
Hegemony= a set of values that are what we become to believe in because of what the mass media and mainstream culture promote to us.
For:
♥ Hegemony is glossed over as entertainment to maintain and set the power of the elite
♥ Antonia Gramsci=It is so successful that it become common sense
♥ Rupert Murdoch owns 40% of the media so his ideologies and views are likely to be reflected in the texts we consume. He owns 18% of ITV, Sky, Fox Broadcasting, The Sun, The Times. He is part of the white middle class demographic that impose right wing policies
♥ Impossible for the mass media to reflect the wide range of opinions that exist in society when controlled by the so few.
♥ Injects passive audiences with ideologies
♥ Bobo doll experiment- how audiences are passive
http://shrek-2.blogspot.com/2007/05/bandura-1965-bobo-doll-experiment.html
♥ America itself is a hegemony- has influence over the United Kingdom
Against:
♥ Effect theory treats children inadequately
♥ Uses and gratification theory- suggests audience actively consume texts and for different reasons
♥ No text has a single meaning- therefore some texts that generate humour may not be funny to all audiences
♥ People are individualist and pluralist.
Genre:
For Arthouse:
♥ Watch them west end cinemas, not played at local cinemas
♥ Changing and different
♥ Educational- clockwork orange- Russian slang is used- audiences learn something new
♥ Unconventional
♥ Active audience create their own interpretations
♥ Low budget hard to market- relies on methods like word of mouth, you tube/viral advertising- cheap
♥ Original, artistic, changes conventions
♥ Has both realistic and unrealistic films
♥ No preferred reading
♥ Auteur- own unique style e.g. Tarantino
Against Arthouse:
♥ niche audience
♥ low quality
For Hollywood:
♥ aimed at mainstreamer and aspirers
♥ gives celebrities, escapism, entertainment, quality- money worth
♥ Blumer and Katz- personal identification with characters and the audience aspire to be like these characters, emotional interaction with them it what the audience want
♥ follows Todorov and Propps’ theory on narrative
♥ audience don’t want change- they like the repetition it meets their expectations
♥ mainstream
♥ “No good and bad films but there are good and bad directors.”
Against Hollywood:
♥ Repetitive
♥ not original
♥ conservative
♥ money drive institution
♥ endless budget- helps with marketing films
♥ formula sells to a passive audience
♥ relies on sequels, remakes and adaptations- no writing talent
♥ outdated 1950s institution
♥ tool of control for the hegemony
For:
♥ Hegemony is glossed over as entertainment to maintain and set the power of the elite
♥ Antonia Gramsci=It is so successful that it become common sense
♥ Rupert Murdoch owns 40% of the media so his ideologies and views are likely to be reflected in the texts we consume. He owns 18% of ITV, Sky, Fox Broadcasting, The Sun, The Times. He is part of the white middle class demographic that impose right wing policies
♥ Impossible for the mass media to reflect the wide range of opinions that exist in society when controlled by the so few.
♥ Injects passive audiences with ideologies
♥ Bobo doll experiment- how audiences are passive
http://shrek-2.blogspot.com/2007/05/bandura-1965-bobo-doll-experiment.html
♥ America itself is a hegemony- has influence over the United Kingdom
Against:
♥ Effect theory treats children inadequately
♥ Uses and gratification theory- suggests audience actively consume texts and for different reasons
♥ No text has a single meaning- therefore some texts that generate humour may not be funny to all audiences
♥ People are individualist and pluralist.
Genre:
For Arthouse:
♥ Watch them west end cinemas, not played at local cinemas
♥ Changing and different
♥ Educational- clockwork orange- Russian slang is used- audiences learn something new
♥ Unconventional
♥ Active audience create their own interpretations
♥ Low budget hard to market- relies on methods like word of mouth, you tube/viral advertising- cheap
♥ Original, artistic, changes conventions
♥ Has both realistic and unrealistic films
♥ No preferred reading
♥ Auteur- own unique style e.g. Tarantino
Against Arthouse:
♥ niche audience
♥ low quality
For Hollywood:
♥ aimed at mainstreamer and aspirers
♥ gives celebrities, escapism, entertainment, quality- money worth
♥ Blumer and Katz- personal identification with characters and the audience aspire to be like these characters, emotional interaction with them it what the audience want
♥ follows Todorov and Propps’ theory on narrative
♥ audience don’t want change- they like the repetition it meets their expectations
♥ mainstream
♥ “No good and bad films but there are good and bad directors.”
Against Hollywood:
♥ Repetitive
♥ not original
♥ conservative
♥ money drive institution
♥ endless budget- helps with marketing films
♥ formula sells to a passive audience
♥ relies on sequels, remakes and adaptations- no writing talent
♥ outdated 1950s institution
♥ tool of control for the hegemony
Women
For:
♥ Women careers end as they get older
♥ “Zoo” and “Nuts” have naked women in the magazine- reinforcing how they are there just to be “looked-at-ness”
♥ Pepsi advert- Britney spears a sex symbol is present with a phallic object to help sell the drink
♥ The sun’s page 3 girl- fetishised to appeal to men
♥ Sex and the City- women in that show are shown to be skinny and beautiful promoting the qualities Laura Mulvey states on how women are there purely there to be “looked at ness”
♥ Most men take lead roles- audience identify with the man
♥ More successful male directors
♥ Dove campaign- promoting how women need these products to look good
♥ Women are remembered for their looks
♥ Music: 50 cent, Jay Z mainstream hip hop artists portray women being inferior to a man by referring to them as “bitches” and try to represent them as only being good for only one thing.
Lil Kim – promotes sex because she feels she has to conform to stay in the music industry
Against:
♥ Enough- show women to be strong and independent
♥ Sun editor- Rebekah Wade- has authority and integrity
♥ Diet coke adverts- men are being objectified
♥ Feminism has helped women become powerful and equal to men
♥ Casino Royale (2006) show Bond emerging from the water making him the object of the “female gaze”
♥ Dove campaign show curvy women
♥ Women are in more professional jobs and are highly educated- they have more to offer then just there looks
♥ Examples of Women who are dominant, independent and successful:
Monica in friends- is dominant over chandler
Lara Croft in tomb raider- fights against the male antagonists
Charlie’s Angels- don’t use guns – no phallic objects
Thelma and Louise- empowered women as they shot a man
♥ Women are more sexually assertive- Samantha in “Sex and the City”
♥ Cosmopolitan- allows women to gain the same sexual pleasures that was once only acceptable for a man to have
♥ Femme fatale- women are in control, they have to power to trick weak men
♥ batman and superman are dressed in tight costumes suggesting neither women or men are being or objectified/ both women and men are being objectified but a reason could be the it is a convention of the mise en scene of the genre of superhero/action films
♥ men these days are under as much pressure as women to look good and try to satisfy the women desire
♥ matriarchal society
Monday, May 21, 2007
Genre revision notes
What is genre?
A set of conventions recognisable, usually through iconography, familiar narrative, mise en scene, actors and style of representation.
“Genre is what we collectively believe it to be”- Andrew Tudor (1986)
“Genre is a context in which meaning is created.”- Douglas Pye (1975)
Genre is define by repertoire of familiar elements
Repetition and variation
However Phillip Brophy (1986) “argues that modern horror film is a saturated genre as audiences are over familiarised with the repertoire elements and their possible variations.”
Variation is needed so audience to not become bored.
“Difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre.”- Steve Neale (1980)
“A set of predictable conventions provides a number of pleasures. These include anticipation of these predictable features and satisfaction when expectations are fulfilled.”- Patrick Phillips (1996)
Hybrid films
Mix the convention of two or more genres for instance in slasher they consist of elements of comedy, thriller, horror e.g. in “Psycho” the thriller was the “who dun nit” enigma running though the film, the horror was the killer and the comedy was cross-dressing of Norman Bates.
Basic genre development
Christian Metz genre cycle:
1- Loose grouping of films- “Psycho”(1960, Alfred Hitchcock), (Texas Chainsaw Massacre)(1974, Tobe Hooper) (Black Christmas)(1974,Bob Clark)(Halloween)(1978, John Carpenter)
2- Evolution to “classic period”-“Friday the 13th” (1980, Sean S Cunningham), “Nightmare On Elm Street”(1984, Wes Craven)
3- Decline (“genre in crisis”)- sequels and Freddy vs. Jason franchise nothing new was being created so the audiences became smaller
4- REINVOGRATION- “Scream”(1996, Wes Craven), Remakes
Series of cycles:
1st cycle- relaxation of censorship, (Vietnam War), growth in teen culture
2nd cycle- special effects- technology- more gory/graphic
3rd cycle – change in the way audience consume films
♥ 1980s- Video was invented
4th cycle- (post-modern cycle) parodies other slasher films
♥ New generation of audience
5th cycle – remakes: Big institutions cashing in money to produce these remakes.
♥ “Halloween” (2007, Rob Zombie)
♥ “Black Christmas” (2006, Glen Morgan)
♥ “Texas Chainsaw Massacre” (2003, Marcus Nispel)
♥ “Psycho” homage (1998, Gus Van Sant)
Before and after event: Rick Altman “Film/Genre” (1999)
Before event=Producer define genre before films have been made by: Discovering what is successful in previous films and imitates features = formula. They would then looked at new successful films to see if they same formula is being used.
After event=Critics/ theorists define genre after the films have been made by: Analysing features of the film and arriving at a description of genre. E.g. film noir arrived from American crime films in the 1940s
Benefits of genre
Producers:
♥ Limits risk for producers because it is tried and tested and provides element of security for investors
♥ More straightforward- because the producers can use the same expertise, same props, cast ect... therefore is cheaper
♥ Can use repertoire of elements for marketing the film
♥ They use repeated storylines and stock characters
Audience:
♥ Audience know what to expect this limits risks as satisfaction and pleasures are repeated
♥ Plan to view with certain expectations and when these expectations are met the “Genre offers comfortable reassurance”- Patrick Phillips (1996)
♥ Enjoy subtle variations within the predictable framework
♥ Consist form of release and escapism
♥ Can engage quickly with easily recognisable plots and characters
♥ Easily follow narratives within genre
♥ Experiences a sense of cultural and emotional security
♥ Finds the choice of entertainment easy
Audience pleasures:
♥ Masochistic
♥ Sadistic
♥ Visceral
♥ Intellectual- thriller/ “who dun nit” enigma
♥ Counter culture attraction- being able to break moral and legal regulations
♥ Counter reading- repertoire of elements this is created by fan groups or create genre through their shared interest. E.g. slasher created from fans who like elements of both horror and thriller.
♥ Audience are taking of the challenge to be scared and can release their taboo desires in a safe social context.
Slasher films
1960s:
Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock): “granddaddy of the slasher genre”
Villain/Psycho- Norman Bates
Final girl- split role between the two sisters Lila and Marion Crane
Hero-Sam Loomis
Failed authority figure: Arbogast
Narrative moment: “shower murder” became template for slasher films to follow. This scene is aimed at a male spectator as it has become fetishised through showing bits of Marion’s body, which is done to fit into the mentality of the killer/psycho. The phallic object is shown penetrating the women.
♥ The audiences are not reassured at the end as the film finished with Norman just laughing.
♥ Hitchcock is being sadistic to his audience
♥ The colour is black and white as black connotes bad/evil and white connotes good, which could be a metaphor for Norman Bates as the good aspect of him was the loyal son and the bad side of him was the mother. This reinforces misogyny and how the mother is to blame for his behaviour.
♥ The woman is older because there was not an emergence of youth culture at this point.
♥ Marion is punished for stealing and illicit sex, which is considered as deviant behaviour as she was pursuing her desire for money and passion. Again reinforcing misogyny and support the patriarchal conservative ideology.
♥ Monster becomes humane and something the audience could relate as horror films before Psycho; had monsters that were European like frankstien and mummies.
Wider context:
♥ Attitudes change towards sex, marriage and family life
♥ Relaxation in censorship in films
♥ Horror/suspense films reflect growing interest in psychology; schizophrenia and the killer as the boy next door rather then a monster or a vampire figure
♥ The Vietnam War (1964-1975) provided material for exploration of the horrors of the war and its dehumanising effects.
♥ 1961- contraceptive pill introduced- giving women greater control over their sex behaviour
♥ 1963- era of mini skirt and an increased in frankness of sex
♥ 1967- colour television introduced in Britain
♥ 1968- Assassination of Martin Luther King
1970s:
Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper)
Villains: Leatherface (take on the role of the absent mother), Hitchhiker, OldMan and Grandfather
Final girl: Sally doesn’t have a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Jerry, Franklin, Kirk and Pam
Murder weapons: knife, butcher’s hook, chainsaw and sledgehammer.
Set piece: chase between final girl and killer, the torture she is put through when she is tied to an armchair made out of human body parts.
The audience are not reassured at the end because Leatherface is left whirling his chainsaw around in a circle in the air. This connotes how his killing cycle will be everlasting, as a circle has no end. Additionally, this could be interpreted as symbolic masturbation as his killings are a metaphor for sex. However, they are reassured because sally escapes but she is mental when she does escape.
♥ Film was banned in mainstream cinema, was considered as a “video nasty” Video nasty was a term used to describe films that were distributed on video that were held by some to be unfit for domestic viewing. Many of these "video nasties" were low-budget horror films produced in Italy and the United States.
♥ Humans were considered as monsters which were capable of anything. In the film it was like a whole family of Ed Geins. It scares people because there are people like Ed Gein in the world.
♥ Dark humour is used in the film
♥ Reflects the zeitgeist by portraying the anxiety of the moral panic of the oil crisis.
Halloween (1978, John Carpenter)
Conventional slasher film
Psycho/villain: Michael Myers is like the devil/ the personification of evil
Final girl: Laurie is a virgin and does not have a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Annie, Lynda, Paul and Bob.
Failed authority figures: Sam Loomis
Phallic object: knife
♥ Enigmatic shots, point of view shots of the killer
♥ Intertextual reference to psycho (1960) Marion’s boyfriend Sam Loomis
♥ Set in a suburban area – links to the wider context the moral panic influenced “white flite” in which white middle class people went to live in safe suburban settings. However, what they repressed returns.
♥ Ideology of sex= death is promoted through Michael Myers seeing sex as a bad thing in Psychopathology. This is illustrated to the audience by him killing his sister as she is being irresponsible by having sex with her boyfriend instead of looking after Michael.
♥ Humour is used in film
♥ Exploitation films feature explosions, drug use, scantily clad women, nudity, machismo, forbidden sex, wanton violence, freaks and geeks, gore, monsters, destruction, rebellion and mayhem. Such films have existed since the earliest days of moviemaking, but they were popularized in the 1960s with the general relaxing of cinematic taboos in the U.S. and Europe. Was considered as an exploitation film but became a successful independent film.
♥ “Tale of the hook” (urban legend) was used to scare teenagers from having sex and was used in Halloween.
♥ Was not intended for a mass audience, but had a huge response there were people screaming when they watch it.
Wider context:
1970- Growth of feminism and demands for gender equality
1973:
♥ Oil crisis leads to three working day week in Britain,
♥ Film: “The Exorcist” (William Friedkin, 1973) causes controversy in the UK.
♥ “Festival of light” pressure group campaigns against pornography and violence in films
1975- Vietnam War is over- USA withdraw
1979- Margaret Thatcher comes to power
1980s:
Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham)
Villain: Mrs Voorhees
Final girl: Alice has masculine qualities this is established through her costume and appearance
Isolated location
♥ Enigma running though the whole film
♥ Counsellors punished for abandoning their responsibilities
♥ 1980s version of the Blair Witch Project
♥ violence was overt
♥ Major release because of the audience. Girls were the primary audience they would go with their friends and then go again with their boyfriends.
♥ No stars, low budget
♥ Real success in the last 3/4 minutes in the film where Jason emergences from the water
♥ Role reversal mother is psycho and has a split personality used as the novelty aspect of the film. Intertextual reference to Psycho
♥ Oedipal relationship between the mother and the son
Nightmare on Elm Street (1984, Wes Craven)
Villain: Freddy Kruger has inhuman qualities as is very much like the “bogeyman”.
Final girl: Nancy is more resourceful and independent. She does not die and comes back in one of the sequels nightmare on elm street 3 and dies in that one. She saves herself on her own.
Failed authority figures: Nancy’s father who is a policeman. Parents are either physically or emotionally absent from the children. Police failed to grant the seriousness of the teenager’s worries and fears.
Group of teenagers: Glen, Teena, Rod
♥ Freddy Kruger- work of fiction as he was monstrous and devilish
♥ Fairytale: “Blood Chamber” going into a place where you shouldn’t
♥ Confine space because he invades the dream of teenagers
♥ Circular narrative starts off as a dream and ends as a dream
♥ Sleep=death because sleep is a teenage pleasure therefore is regarded as worthy of punishment
♥ Darkened boiler room analogy of the unconscious deep down underground, trapped
♥ Freud believed a dream is an unconscious desires and wishes being fulfilled and a nightmare is a wish gone wrong
♥ Wes Craven’s new nightmare (1994) Kruger as a character making fun of the genre.
♥ Kruger was the iconic monster of the 80s
♥ Franchising Freddy Kruger made him less scary as he became a lovable character through merchandising him through dolls and making lots of sequels which resulted in the audience becoming familiarised with him taking away the impact he once had on an audience. Additionally, by franchising him it took away the character from the plot.
Wider context:
1981- Economic depression- unemployment reaches 3million
1982- AIDS identified and named
1984/1985-Under the 1984 Act, the BBFC was renamed the 'British Board of Film Classification' and became responsible for the certification of both cinema and video releases. All video releases after 1 September 1985 had to comply with the Act and be submitted for classification by the BBFC. Films released on video before that date had to be re-submitted for classification within the following three years. The increased possibility of videos falling into the hands of children required that film classification for video be a separate process from cinema classification. Films that had passed uncut for cinema release were often cut for video.
1986- Widespread homophobic reaction to AIDS
1989- Collapse of communism in Russia and Eastern Europe
1990s:
Scream (1996, Wes Craven)
Villains: Billy Loomis
Final girl: Sidney Prescott had boyfriend and is not a virgin
Failed authority figures: Dewey
Phallic objects: gun, knife
♥ Post-modern text- Intertextual references to a number of films some examples are: Halloween, Prom Night, Candyman, Basic Instinct, Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Psycho, Exorcist, Silence Of The Lambs, Nightmare On Elm Street…
♥ Explicitly state the conventions making it a self referential text/self reflexive
♥ Reference to film and film making
♥ Killer is not monstrous is a normal person
♥ 3rd wave feminism women can have sex- attitudes to sex have changed
♥ knowing audience
♥ who dun nit enigma running through the film
♥ refers to why audience watch horror films
♥ reinvigorates slasher genre
♥ is a pastiche because borrows elements of other texts for example the opening of “ when a stranger calls” and parody to some extent as the mask mocks previous slasher masks.
Wider context:
1991- Development of the Internet
1995- Film “Natural Born Killer” (Oliver Stone, 1995) cause controversy
2000:
Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003, Marcus Nispel)
Villains: Leatherface and his family
Final girl: Erin has a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Morgan, Pepper, Andy, Kemper
Failed authority figure: Sheriff Hoyt, old women at the diner
♥ killings are more graphic
♥ final girl has to kill her own friend can reflect euthanasia play more of an active role she tries to save her friends, tries to save her male friends who is badly hurt
♥ more suspense as audiences are more desensitised now
Wider context:
2000- Project for New American Century see the USA as globally dominant
A set of conventions recognisable, usually through iconography, familiar narrative, mise en scene, actors and style of representation.
“Genre is what we collectively believe it to be”- Andrew Tudor (1986)
“Genre is a context in which meaning is created.”- Douglas Pye (1975)
Genre is define by repertoire of familiar elements
Repetition and variation
However Phillip Brophy (1986) “argues that modern horror film is a saturated genre as audiences are over familiarised with the repertoire elements and their possible variations.”
Variation is needed so audience to not become bored.
“Difference is absolutely essential to the economy of genre.”- Steve Neale (1980)
“A set of predictable conventions provides a number of pleasures. These include anticipation of these predictable features and satisfaction when expectations are fulfilled.”- Patrick Phillips (1996)
Hybrid films
Mix the convention of two or more genres for instance in slasher they consist of elements of comedy, thriller, horror e.g. in “Psycho” the thriller was the “who dun nit” enigma running though the film, the horror was the killer and the comedy was cross-dressing of Norman Bates.
Basic genre development
Christian Metz genre cycle:
1- Loose grouping of films- “Psycho”(1960, Alfred Hitchcock), (Texas Chainsaw Massacre)(1974, Tobe Hooper) (Black Christmas)(1974,Bob Clark)(Halloween)(1978, John Carpenter)
2- Evolution to “classic period”-“Friday the 13th” (1980, Sean S Cunningham), “Nightmare On Elm Street”(1984, Wes Craven)
3- Decline (“genre in crisis”)- sequels and Freddy vs. Jason franchise nothing new was being created so the audiences became smaller
4- REINVOGRATION- “Scream”(1996, Wes Craven), Remakes
Series of cycles:
1st cycle- relaxation of censorship, (Vietnam War), growth in teen culture
2nd cycle- special effects- technology- more gory/graphic
3rd cycle – change in the way audience consume films
♥ 1980s- Video was invented
4th cycle- (post-modern cycle) parodies other slasher films
♥ New generation of audience
5th cycle – remakes: Big institutions cashing in money to produce these remakes.
♥ “Halloween” (2007, Rob Zombie)
♥ “Black Christmas” (2006, Glen Morgan)
♥ “Texas Chainsaw Massacre” (2003, Marcus Nispel)
♥ “Psycho” homage (1998, Gus Van Sant)
Before and after event: Rick Altman “Film/Genre” (1999)
Before event=Producer define genre before films have been made by: Discovering what is successful in previous films and imitates features = formula. They would then looked at new successful films to see if they same formula is being used.
After event=Critics/ theorists define genre after the films have been made by: Analysing features of the film and arriving at a description of genre. E.g. film noir arrived from American crime films in the 1940s
Benefits of genre
Producers:
♥ Limits risk for producers because it is tried and tested and provides element of security for investors
♥ More straightforward- because the producers can use the same expertise, same props, cast ect... therefore is cheaper
♥ Can use repertoire of elements for marketing the film
♥ They use repeated storylines and stock characters
Audience:
♥ Audience know what to expect this limits risks as satisfaction and pleasures are repeated
♥ Plan to view with certain expectations and when these expectations are met the “Genre offers comfortable reassurance”- Patrick Phillips (1996)
♥ Enjoy subtle variations within the predictable framework
♥ Consist form of release and escapism
♥ Can engage quickly with easily recognisable plots and characters
♥ Easily follow narratives within genre
♥ Experiences a sense of cultural and emotional security
♥ Finds the choice of entertainment easy
Audience pleasures:
♥ Masochistic
♥ Sadistic
♥ Visceral
♥ Intellectual- thriller/ “who dun nit” enigma
♥ Counter culture attraction- being able to break moral and legal regulations
♥ Counter reading- repertoire of elements this is created by fan groups or create genre through their shared interest. E.g. slasher created from fans who like elements of both horror and thriller.
♥ Audience are taking of the challenge to be scared and can release their taboo desires in a safe social context.
Slasher films
1960s:
Psycho (1960, Alfred Hitchcock): “granddaddy of the slasher genre”Villain/Psycho- Norman Bates
Final girl- split role between the two sisters Lila and Marion Crane
Hero-Sam Loomis
Failed authority figure: Arbogast
Narrative moment: “shower murder” became template for slasher films to follow. This scene is aimed at a male spectator as it has become fetishised through showing bits of Marion’s body, which is done to fit into the mentality of the killer/psycho. The phallic object is shown penetrating the women.
♥ The audiences are not reassured at the end as the film finished with Norman just laughing.
♥ Hitchcock is being sadistic to his audience
♥ The colour is black and white as black connotes bad/evil and white connotes good, which could be a metaphor for Norman Bates as the good aspect of him was the loyal son and the bad side of him was the mother. This reinforces misogyny and how the mother is to blame for his behaviour.
♥ The woman is older because there was not an emergence of youth culture at this point.
♥ Marion is punished for stealing and illicit sex, which is considered as deviant behaviour as she was pursuing her desire for money and passion. Again reinforcing misogyny and support the patriarchal conservative ideology.
♥ Monster becomes humane and something the audience could relate as horror films before Psycho; had monsters that were European like frankstien and mummies.
Wider context:
♥ Attitudes change towards sex, marriage and family life
♥ Relaxation in censorship in films
♥ Horror/suspense films reflect growing interest in psychology; schizophrenia and the killer as the boy next door rather then a monster or a vampire figure
♥ The Vietnam War (1964-1975) provided material for exploration of the horrors of the war and its dehumanising effects.
♥ 1961- contraceptive pill introduced- giving women greater control over their sex behaviour
♥ 1963- era of mini skirt and an increased in frankness of sex
♥ 1967- colour television introduced in Britain
♥ 1968- Assassination of Martin Luther King
1970s:
Texas Chainsaw Massacre (1974, Tobe Hooper)Villains: Leatherface (take on the role of the absent mother), Hitchhiker, OldMan and Grandfather
Final girl: Sally doesn’t have a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Jerry, Franklin, Kirk and Pam
Murder weapons: knife, butcher’s hook, chainsaw and sledgehammer.
Set piece: chase between final girl and killer, the torture she is put through when she is tied to an armchair made out of human body parts.
The audience are not reassured at the end because Leatherface is left whirling his chainsaw around in a circle in the air. This connotes how his killing cycle will be everlasting, as a circle has no end. Additionally, this could be interpreted as symbolic masturbation as his killings are a metaphor for sex. However, they are reassured because sally escapes but she is mental when she does escape.
♥ Film was banned in mainstream cinema, was considered as a “video nasty” Video nasty was a term used to describe films that were distributed on video that were held by some to be unfit for domestic viewing. Many of these "video nasties" were low-budget horror films produced in Italy and the United States.
♥ Humans were considered as monsters which were capable of anything. In the film it was like a whole family of Ed Geins. It scares people because there are people like Ed Gein in the world.
♥ Dark humour is used in the film
♥ Reflects the zeitgeist by portraying the anxiety of the moral panic of the oil crisis.
Halloween (1978, John Carpenter)Conventional slasher film
Psycho/villain: Michael Myers is like the devil/ the personification of evil
Final girl: Laurie is a virgin and does not have a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Annie, Lynda, Paul and Bob.
Failed authority figures: Sam Loomis
Phallic object: knife
♥ Enigmatic shots, point of view shots of the killer
♥ Intertextual reference to psycho (1960) Marion’s boyfriend Sam Loomis
♥ Set in a suburban area – links to the wider context the moral panic influenced “white flite” in which white middle class people went to live in safe suburban settings. However, what they repressed returns.
♥ Ideology of sex= death is promoted through Michael Myers seeing sex as a bad thing in Psychopathology. This is illustrated to the audience by him killing his sister as she is being irresponsible by having sex with her boyfriend instead of looking after Michael.
♥ Humour is used in film
♥ Exploitation films feature explosions, drug use, scantily clad women, nudity, machismo, forbidden sex, wanton violence, freaks and geeks, gore, monsters, destruction, rebellion and mayhem. Such films have existed since the earliest days of moviemaking, but they were popularized in the 1960s with the general relaxing of cinematic taboos in the U.S. and Europe. Was considered as an exploitation film but became a successful independent film.
♥ “Tale of the hook” (urban legend) was used to scare teenagers from having sex and was used in Halloween.
♥ Was not intended for a mass audience, but had a huge response there were people screaming when they watch it.
Wider context:
1970- Growth of feminism and demands for gender equality
1973:
♥ Oil crisis leads to three working day week in Britain,
♥ Film: “The Exorcist” (William Friedkin, 1973) causes controversy in the UK.
♥ “Festival of light” pressure group campaigns against pornography and violence in films
1975- Vietnam War is over- USA withdraw
1979- Margaret Thatcher comes to power
1980s:
Friday the 13th (1980, Sean S Cunningham)Villain: Mrs Voorhees
Final girl: Alice has masculine qualities this is established through her costume and appearance
Isolated location
♥ Enigma running though the whole film
♥ Counsellors punished for abandoning their responsibilities
♥ 1980s version of the Blair Witch Project
♥ violence was overt
♥ Major release because of the audience. Girls were the primary audience they would go with their friends and then go again with their boyfriends.
♥ No stars, low budget
♥ Real success in the last 3/4 minutes in the film where Jason emergences from the water
♥ Role reversal mother is psycho and has a split personality used as the novelty aspect of the film. Intertextual reference to Psycho
♥ Oedipal relationship between the mother and the son
Nightmare on Elm Street (1984, Wes Craven)Villain: Freddy Kruger has inhuman qualities as is very much like the “bogeyman”.
Final girl: Nancy is more resourceful and independent. She does not die and comes back in one of the sequels nightmare on elm street 3 and dies in that one. She saves herself on her own.
Failed authority figures: Nancy’s father who is a policeman. Parents are either physically or emotionally absent from the children. Police failed to grant the seriousness of the teenager’s worries and fears.
Group of teenagers: Glen, Teena, Rod
♥ Freddy Kruger- work of fiction as he was monstrous and devilish
♥ Fairytale: “Blood Chamber” going into a place where you shouldn’t
♥ Confine space because he invades the dream of teenagers
♥ Circular narrative starts off as a dream and ends as a dream
♥ Sleep=death because sleep is a teenage pleasure therefore is regarded as worthy of punishment
♥ Darkened boiler room analogy of the unconscious deep down underground, trapped
♥ Freud believed a dream is an unconscious desires and wishes being fulfilled and a nightmare is a wish gone wrong
♥ Wes Craven’s new nightmare (1994) Kruger as a character making fun of the genre.
♥ Kruger was the iconic monster of the 80s
♥ Franchising Freddy Kruger made him less scary as he became a lovable character through merchandising him through dolls and making lots of sequels which resulted in the audience becoming familiarised with him taking away the impact he once had on an audience. Additionally, by franchising him it took away the character from the plot.
Wider context:
1981- Economic depression- unemployment reaches 3million
1982- AIDS identified and named
1984/1985-Under the 1984 Act, the BBFC was renamed the 'British Board of Film Classification' and became responsible for the certification of both cinema and video releases. All video releases after 1 September 1985 had to comply with the Act and be submitted for classification by the BBFC. Films released on video before that date had to be re-submitted for classification within the following three years. The increased possibility of videos falling into the hands of children required that film classification for video be a separate process from cinema classification. Films that had passed uncut for cinema release were often cut for video.
1986- Widespread homophobic reaction to AIDS
1989- Collapse of communism in Russia and Eastern Europe
1990s:
Scream (1996, Wes Craven)Villains: Billy Loomis
Final girl: Sidney Prescott had boyfriend and is not a virgin
Failed authority figures: Dewey
Phallic objects: gun, knife
♥ Post-modern text- Intertextual references to a number of films some examples are: Halloween, Prom Night, Candyman, Basic Instinct, Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Psycho, Exorcist, Silence Of The Lambs, Nightmare On Elm Street…
♥ Explicitly state the conventions making it a self referential text/self reflexive
♥ Reference to film and film making
♥ Killer is not monstrous is a normal person
♥ 3rd wave feminism women can have sex- attitudes to sex have changed
♥ knowing audience
♥ who dun nit enigma running through the film
♥ refers to why audience watch horror films
♥ reinvigorates slasher genre
♥ is a pastiche because borrows elements of other texts for example the opening of “ when a stranger calls” and parody to some extent as the mask mocks previous slasher masks.
Wider context:
1991- Development of the Internet
1995- Film “Natural Born Killer” (Oliver Stone, 1995) cause controversy
2000:
Texas Chainsaw Massacre (2003, Marcus Nispel)Villains: Leatherface and his family
Final girl: Erin has a boyfriend
Group of teenagers: Morgan, Pepper, Andy, Kemper
Failed authority figure: Sheriff Hoyt, old women at the diner
♥ killings are more graphic
♥ final girl has to kill her own friend can reflect euthanasia play more of an active role she tries to save her friends, tries to save her male friends who is badly hurt
♥ more suspense as audiences are more desensitised now
Wider context:
2000- Project for New American Century see the USA as globally dominant
Why genre changes over time?
♥ Changes in target audience
The demographics influence the way a text is made, they decide on things like the special effects used. Target audience for films have become younger over the years and could be the reason why slasher films are aimed primarily at teenage audience. This is called “juvenilisation” of cinema. Moreover, research states in heterosexual relationship the woman tends to pick the film whereas the man pays. This suggests the films have to carefully marketed to attract the female audience.
♥ Changes in audience expectations
Audience are more sophisticated viewers therefore an audience reading a text from and established genre is likely to be familiarised with the codes and conventions of the genre from looking at other similar texts. Filmmakers can manipulate the audience emotions by meeting or cheating the expectations. Therefore a certain amount repetition and variation is required for the audience to gain satisfaction. Furthermore, the genre is kept fresh through developing parody, pastiche and hybrid forms. However, to enjoy these new developments you would have to have knowledge on previous texts. For example, in order to enjoy “Scary Movie” (2000, Keenen Ivory Wayans) you would have to be familiar with the conventions of both parody and horror to see how the genre has changed.
♥ Changes in society, ideologies, values and representations
Contemporary audience are harder to shock and are desensitised to the representations of graphic violence, sexual images and “bad” language.
Feminism has helped improve the representation of women
Vietnam War has been reflected in films
♥ Censorship and codes of conduct
Relaxation of censorship has made audience desensitised to graphic sex and violence. However, in 1960s explicit nudity was banned and swearing and excessive and lustful kissing was considered unacceptable.
♥ Influence of particular texts, stars, authors and directors
Some stars, directors and authors have a big impact on audience. For example Alfred Hitchcock’s work has amazed audiences that that his work in influenced in contemporary thrillers as a result of this he is referred to as “the master of suspense.”
♥ Media institution e.g. film industry
Powerful media owners fund the text which goes through a process of production, editing and marketing the text. Over time, particular studios or publishers become associated with particular genres and they will influence the style or themes of the text they produce. For example dark castle entertainment which is a production house associated with Warner Brothers that help with horror film remakes from the 1950/60s. Some of the films they have made are:
(x) House on Haunted Hill (1999)
(x) Ghost Ship (2002)
(x) Gothika (2003)
(x) House of Wax (2005)
♥ Changes in technology
() Steadicam is development in technology that helps with stalking shots.
() Development in digital video editing techniques have led to fast paced editing and exact pacing of music with on-screen action.
() Films can be marketed through internet
How slasher genre appears in other media?
Eminem is a rapper who uses iconic elements from slasher film when he is performing. For example, the Jason’s hockey mask from “Friday the 13th” is used and the chainsaw is from “Texas Chainsaw Massacre” is used. This is used in a post modern way and is communicating to his fans in a short hand way that he is like a psycho who people can not control.
Representation Revision Notes
Representation is carefully shaped version of reality because what the audience see in any media text is less real then what they see in reality as it has gone through the process of mediation, which makes it a re-presentation. Additionally, these representations have underpinning ideologies and values which are put across in a subtle ways and this can promote or challenge dominant ideology in society.
Liberal values are progressive or radical often calling for equality. (These are usually left wing because they want equality between men and women as well as for disable people and other ethnicities.
Conservative values are traditional and reactionary, supporting the status quo. (right wing- don’t like change)
Stereotypes are categorising people into groups by only a few characteristics. These can be positive, negative or changing.
Representation of Women:
Common stereotypes were:
♥ Damsel in distress (princess role in Propp theory)
♥ Housewife
♥ Bimbo
♥ Mothers
♥ Madonna
♥ Whore
♥ Ladette
♥ Femme fatale
Gunter (1995) - between 1950/1970s only 25-30% of the people seen on television were women
Tuchman (1975) describes “symbolic annihilation” of women meaning that women are invisible in the media
Lauzen and Dozier research in 1995-1996 showed 43% of female representations
Miles (1975) research showed that sitcoms in this period of time had a balance of both gender roles how the representations of women were sexist.
Humm (1997) suggest films like “Fatal Attraction” (1987) show women making a choice between family and career; women that choose their career were considered as “bad hysterical careerists”
Laura Mulvey’s theory on the “male gaze” states how women are primarily there to be looked at and they are objectified for pleasure for the male spectator.
Freud theory on castration: believed men feel anxiety if they see a woman without a phallic object as it would make them feel castrated, but having the phallic object present would take away their anxiety making women less threatening for men to watch.
Examples
Politics and News:
Minority of women are shown here as it suggests women are not intelligent enough or do not have a strong valid opinion like men.
Newspaper:
Tabloid newspaper “The Sun” consists of page 3 girls. According to Mulvey’s theory these women are objects of the “male gaze” and second wave feminists would agree with this as they believe these women are exploiting their bodies to pleasure men. However, third wave feminists would argue these women are empowered because they are using their bodies to lure men therefore they are the ones maintaining power. Moreover, cultivation theory suggests page 3 girls exist as society is desensitised to them and have accepted that. Additionally as Rupert Murdoch owns “The Sun” his male values are like to be promoted and having the page 3 girls is an example of this as they were only introduced when he re-launched this newspaper.
Rebekah Wade a successful women editor that works for “The Sun” helps reinforce the “status quo” as she is helping exploit page 3 girls as they are one of the primary reasons that help sell the paper seeing that before they were around the newspaper was loosing sales. Moreover, she is helping them become famous for the wrong reasons an example of this is Katie Price known as Jordan who has claimed fame through her breasts which objectify her and help reinforce patriarchy which is why most women look down at her.
Films:
Slasher films have “final girl” theorised by Carol Clover in her book “Men, Women and Chainsaws.” This shows how women are more independent, strong and resourceful seeing that as time goes on they rescue themselves. Additionally, the male viewer can cross gender identify with her. However, slasher reinforces patriarchy by killing off promiscuous women this is illustrated in “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock); but having a “final girl” shows the result of feminism.
Progressive text is “Tomb Raider” (2001) where Lara Croft is a strong female protagonist she is shown beating male antagonists with her physical strength, letting her authority, power and determination drives the narrative forward. She carries a gun which connotes her power and could make the audience feel threatened but at the same time anxiety free as it connotes the phallic object which stops men from being castrated. Furthermore, as she appears in games, which is primarily played by males they are able to cross gender identify with her. However, it could be seen as a man controlling her therefore resulting in him in power over her.
“Charlie’s Angels” can be seen as a progressive text too seeing that there are three independent women who are “active” as they are going out fighting showing off their physical strength. However, them listening to Charlie’s demands shows patriarchy is still evident as they are taking orders from a man. Moreover, Charlie is represented godlike as you cannot see him throughout the film and this show portrays his dominance over the angels.
However, contemporary films still portray women in negative roles. An example of a film that does this is “Mere Jeevan Saathi” (2006) a Bollywood film where Anjali is portrayed as the “Madonna” and the vamp/villain is Natasha who is portrayed as the “femme fatale/whore” and as a result is punished at the end, reinforcing misogyny.
Another example is “Kidulthood” where they show young females Becky and Alissa prostituating themsleves to the men making the audience to think the females as weak and that men could control them through money; reinforcing the stereotype of the “whore”.
Television:
“Hollyoaks” is a soap that shows how women are purely to be looked as they represent them as youthful and sexy in the title sequence and there is only one token female who is fat. However, the majority of the females shown in this soap are placed in a stereotypical role for example Carmel takes on the role of the “blonde bimbo”, Tina the “geeky/clever” one and Michaela as the “troublemaker”.
A reason for these stereotypes could be so the audience can identify with the characters and the producers of the text do not have enough time to go into details about each character so the stereotype is used as short hand.
“Sex and the city” American cable show liberates women as all four women are represented as sexually active especially Samantha who could even be labelled as the “whore” as she is sex obsessed, assertive and independent. However, she is not punished for wanting to have sex neither of the women are which promotes women values and suggests society is accepting that women have sexual needs and desires as well.
Adverts:
Dove adverts are progressive as they show women who are chubby giving a more realistic representation of women. Seeing that, these women are not fat but curvy still makes them attractive to the male audience and placing them with very little clothing reinforces them as objects of the “male gaze.” However, it could be seen as a convention of an advert for the characters to wear revealing or tight clothes to make them look sexy as “sex sells”.
An example, of a post feminism text is the Pepsi advert featuring celebrities Beyonce Knowles and Jennifer Lopez. In this advert, the two females are placed in active roles as they are out fighting and riding motor bikes; typically associated with what a man would do, this role reversal classify this text as post-feminist. However, the women are taking orders from a man indicating they are subordinate to him as they are listening to him by going out and fighting the people he has instructed them to fight.
Moreover, print adverts help reinforce the “male gaze” as the women are shown with fetish objects like whips or dressed in a fetish manner for example, wearing stockings and having phallic objects present make them less threatening to the male spectator as if the phallic object is not present can cause them to feel castrated and to a man can be his biggest fear.
Lastly, there is the Lynx advert in which conventionally attractive and slim female characters are only there to be looked at.
Music:
Spice girls were big in the 1990s and promoted “girl power”. This caused girl groups like Destiny’s child, Pussycat dolls and TLC to come out and promote a similar message.
Pussycat dolls are empowering to women as their songs “I don’t need a man” and “buttons” convey how women are more independent and sexually active now therefore promoting how women are more autonomous.
Christina Aguilera’s lyrics to “can’t hold us down” is really empowering to women as she sings about how she is disgusted with how society are more lenient with one group then the other, she explicitly states how she feels about males stars getting respected and worshipped for bragging about their sex lives, but when women tries to express their sex lives, they get labelled as “sluts” and “whores” which reflects the inequalities that still remain in society today. However, Christina lets people know how she doe not appreciate being called a “bitch” simply because she stands up for herself and is a strong woman.
Even though women promote girl power they are still objectify themselves. However, it could be argued they are not objectifying themselves but doing this to make themselves look good and feel proud of themselves as they have the power to tease a man.
General information about representation of women:
Women representation can be stated as inaccurate due to the lack of female directors. This could be for the reason that women are criticised for neglecting their family and film is really a male dominated industry and being a token female could be hard as men may not take your seriously. Despite this there are a few successful female directors for example Sophia Coppola who directed “Lost in Translation” (2003).
Sophia Coppola poses with her Academy Award for Original Screenplay for Lost in Translation.
The media is mainly controlled by males such as Rupert Murdoch which means that media texts produced are promoting male values in a subtle way; making successful women rare and placed in token roles.
Models are airbrushed by:
Having their pupils dilated to suggest sexual arousal
Irises made blue to connote innocence
Flushed cheeks to indicate sexual arousal and youth
Pimples and wrinkles removed
Teeth whitened to suggest health and youth
Lips are made more red to make the similar to female genitalia
Breasts are enlarged
“Female gaze” introduced in James Bond’s film “Casino Royale” (2006, Martin Campbell) show Bond emerging from the water for the females to gaze at as he is being objectified.
Representation of Asians:
Theorists:
Ashis Nandy- “The Other”:
A binary opposition of one self
The other=hate/fear
Civilised vs. Uncivilised
Hardworking vs. Lazy
Examples groups of people that are seen as the other:
♥ Immigrants
♥ Homosexuals
♥ Women
♥ Ethnic minorities
♥ Muslims
Colonialism:
Dehumanises colonisers (British)
Brutalises colonised (Indians)
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak- “Third World”
Indian feminist
Argues against “hegemonic historiography”
Wants to move non western discourses in totally new spaces where difference is the norm and new “worlding of the world” is created.
♥ South Asians are the highest/largest ethnic minorities (2million+)
♥ Asians high birth-rate and immigration.
♥ A lot of Asians who work in the BBC often leave because they don’t fit in
MIND YOUR LANGUAGE: (sitcom)
♥ Prime time TV, Saturday night, (LWT/ITV 1977)
♥ 17 million viewers
♥ Brown people onscreen, they were stereotyped and exploited by exaggerating national characteristics.
♥ negative views/stereotypes of Asians which reinforces peoples assumptions
♥ less politically correct
♥ all nationalities equally stereotyped
♥ turned fear and anxiety into humour
♥ head was exaggerated because she was women
♥ people are laughing at the ethnic minorities and their misunderstandings
♥ the character speaking Urdu has no subtitles so the joke can be reversed as teacher can not understand the joke which suggest the text is slightly progressive
♥ Religious violence, Asians are unstable reinforcing Nandy’s theory on the other as well as reflecting the zeitgeist.
GOODNESS GRACIOUS ME (sketch show)
♥ Written by Meera Syal – self representation
♥ BBC 2 (public service broadcaster)- more of a niche audience, more middleclass, however appealed to mass audience
♥ Prime time show
♥ Making fun of English people in the restaurant scene as the Englishman has to conform to be accepted
♥ Using Indian words making the white audience outsiders
♥ Indian culture influenced by black street culture – Homi Bhabha “cultural hybridity”- loosing traditional values
♥ Using cultural myths about “the other” assumptions
Parodies and references in the show
♥ "The Six Million Rupee Man" - Parody of Six Million Dollar Man.
♥ "Skipinder: The Punjabi Kangaroo" - Parody of Skippy the Bush Kangaroo.
♥ "I'm a Punjabi Girl..." - Parody of Aqua's Barbie Girl song.
♥ "I want to live like Hindi people" - Parody of Pulp's Common People.
♥ "Asian Bride Shop" - Homage to Monty Python's Cheese Shop sketch and Dead Parrot sketch.
♥ "Maharajah's hotel" - Homage to Fawlty Towers.
♥ "The Delhi Tubbies" - Fictional Asian equivalent of the Teletubbies
Liberal values are progressive or radical often calling for equality. (These are usually left wing because they want equality between men and women as well as for disable people and other ethnicities.
Conservative values are traditional and reactionary, supporting the status quo. (right wing- don’t like change)
Stereotypes are categorising people into groups by only a few characteristics. These can be positive, negative or changing.
Representation of Women:
Common stereotypes were:
♥ Damsel in distress (princess role in Propp theory)
♥ Housewife
♥ Bimbo
♥ Mothers
♥ Madonna
♥ Whore
♥ Ladette
♥ Femme fatale
Gunter (1995) - between 1950/1970s only 25-30% of the people seen on television were women
Tuchman (1975) describes “symbolic annihilation” of women meaning that women are invisible in the media
Lauzen and Dozier research in 1995-1996 showed 43% of female representations
Miles (1975) research showed that sitcoms in this period of time had a balance of both gender roles how the representations of women were sexist.
Humm (1997) suggest films like “Fatal Attraction” (1987) show women making a choice between family and career; women that choose their career were considered as “bad hysterical careerists”
Laura Mulvey’s theory on the “male gaze” states how women are primarily there to be looked at and they are objectified for pleasure for the male spectator.
Freud theory on castration: believed men feel anxiety if they see a woman without a phallic object as it would make them feel castrated, but having the phallic object present would take away their anxiety making women less threatening for men to watch.
Examples
Politics and News:
Minority of women are shown here as it suggests women are not intelligent enough or do not have a strong valid opinion like men.
Newspaper:
Tabloid newspaper “The Sun” consists of page 3 girls. According to Mulvey’s theory these women are objects of the “male gaze” and second wave feminists would agree with this as they believe these women are exploiting their bodies to pleasure men. However, third wave feminists would argue these women are empowered because they are using their bodies to lure men therefore they are the ones maintaining power. Moreover, cultivation theory suggests page 3 girls exist as society is desensitised to them and have accepted that. Additionally as Rupert Murdoch owns “The Sun” his male values are like to be promoted and having the page 3 girls is an example of this as they were only introduced when he re-launched this newspaper.
Rebekah Wade a successful women editor that works for “The Sun” helps reinforce the “status quo” as she is helping exploit page 3 girls as they are one of the primary reasons that help sell the paper seeing that before they were around the newspaper was loosing sales. Moreover, she is helping them become famous for the wrong reasons an example of this is Katie Price known as Jordan who has claimed fame through her breasts which objectify her and help reinforce patriarchy which is why most women look down at her.
Films:
Slasher films have “final girl” theorised by Carol Clover in her book “Men, Women and Chainsaws.” This shows how women are more independent, strong and resourceful seeing that as time goes on they rescue themselves. Additionally, the male viewer can cross gender identify with her. However, slasher reinforces patriarchy by killing off promiscuous women this is illustrated in “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock); but having a “final girl” shows the result of feminism.
Progressive text is “Tomb Raider” (2001) where Lara Croft is a strong female protagonist she is shown beating male antagonists with her physical strength, letting her authority, power and determination drives the narrative forward. She carries a gun which connotes her power and could make the audience feel threatened but at the same time anxiety free as it connotes the phallic object which stops men from being castrated. Furthermore, as she appears in games, which is primarily played by males they are able to cross gender identify with her. However, it could be seen as a man controlling her therefore resulting in him in power over her.
“Charlie’s Angels” can be seen as a progressive text too seeing that there are three independent women who are “active” as they are going out fighting showing off their physical strength. However, them listening to Charlie’s demands shows patriarchy is still evident as they are taking orders from a man. Moreover, Charlie is represented godlike as you cannot see him throughout the film and this show portrays his dominance over the angels.
However, contemporary films still portray women in negative roles. An example of a film that does this is “Mere Jeevan Saathi” (2006) a Bollywood film where Anjali is portrayed as the “Madonna” and the vamp/villain is Natasha who is portrayed as the “femme fatale/whore” and as a result is punished at the end, reinforcing misogyny.
Another example is “Kidulthood” where they show young females Becky and Alissa prostituating themsleves to the men making the audience to think the females as weak and that men could control them through money; reinforcing the stereotype of the “whore”.
Television:
“Hollyoaks” is a soap that shows how women are purely to be looked as they represent them as youthful and sexy in the title sequence and there is only one token female who is fat. However, the majority of the females shown in this soap are placed in a stereotypical role for example Carmel takes on the role of the “blonde bimbo”, Tina the “geeky/clever” one and Michaela as the “troublemaker”.
A reason for these stereotypes could be so the audience can identify with the characters and the producers of the text do not have enough time to go into details about each character so the stereotype is used as short hand.
“Sex and the city” American cable show liberates women as all four women are represented as sexually active especially Samantha who could even be labelled as the “whore” as she is sex obsessed, assertive and independent. However, she is not punished for wanting to have sex neither of the women are which promotes women values and suggests society is accepting that women have sexual needs and desires as well.
Adverts:
Dove adverts are progressive as they show women who are chubby giving a more realistic representation of women. Seeing that, these women are not fat but curvy still makes them attractive to the male audience and placing them with very little clothing reinforces them as objects of the “male gaze.” However, it could be seen as a convention of an advert for the characters to wear revealing or tight clothes to make them look sexy as “sex sells”.
An example, of a post feminism text is the Pepsi advert featuring celebrities Beyonce Knowles and Jennifer Lopez. In this advert, the two females are placed in active roles as they are out fighting and riding motor bikes; typically associated with what a man would do, this role reversal classify this text as post-feminist. However, the women are taking orders from a man indicating they are subordinate to him as they are listening to him by going out and fighting the people he has instructed them to fight.
Moreover, print adverts help reinforce the “male gaze” as the women are shown with fetish objects like whips or dressed in a fetish manner for example, wearing stockings and having phallic objects present make them less threatening to the male spectator as if the phallic object is not present can cause them to feel castrated and to a man can be his biggest fear.
Lastly, there is the Lynx advert in which conventionally attractive and slim female characters are only there to be looked at.
Music:
Spice girls were big in the 1990s and promoted “girl power”. This caused girl groups like Destiny’s child, Pussycat dolls and TLC to come out and promote a similar message.
Pussycat dolls are empowering to women as their songs “I don’t need a man” and “buttons” convey how women are more independent and sexually active now therefore promoting how women are more autonomous.
Christina Aguilera’s lyrics to “can’t hold us down” is really empowering to women as she sings about how she is disgusted with how society are more lenient with one group then the other, she explicitly states how she feels about males stars getting respected and worshipped for bragging about their sex lives, but when women tries to express their sex lives, they get labelled as “sluts” and “whores” which reflects the inequalities that still remain in society today. However, Christina lets people know how she doe not appreciate being called a “bitch” simply because she stands up for herself and is a strong woman.
Even though women promote girl power they are still objectify themselves. However, it could be argued they are not objectifying themselves but doing this to make themselves look good and feel proud of themselves as they have the power to tease a man.
General information about representation of women:
Women representation can be stated as inaccurate due to the lack of female directors. This could be for the reason that women are criticised for neglecting their family and film is really a male dominated industry and being a token female could be hard as men may not take your seriously. Despite this there are a few successful female directors for example Sophia Coppola who directed “Lost in Translation” (2003).
Sophia Coppola poses with her Academy Award for Original Screenplay for Lost in Translation.
The media is mainly controlled by males such as Rupert Murdoch which means that media texts produced are promoting male values in a subtle way; making successful women rare and placed in token roles.
Models are airbrushed by:
Having their pupils dilated to suggest sexual arousal
Irises made blue to connote innocence
Flushed cheeks to indicate sexual arousal and youth
Pimples and wrinkles removed
Teeth whitened to suggest health and youth
Lips are made more red to make the similar to female genitalia
Breasts are enlarged
“Female gaze” introduced in James Bond’s film “Casino Royale” (2006, Martin Campbell) show Bond emerging from the water for the females to gaze at as he is being objectified.
Representation of Asians:
Theorists:
Ashis Nandy- “The Other”:
A binary opposition of one self
The other=hate/fear
Civilised vs. Uncivilised
Hardworking vs. Lazy
Examples groups of people that are seen as the other:
♥ Immigrants
♥ Homosexuals
♥ Women
♥ Ethnic minorities
♥ Muslims
Colonialism:
Dehumanises colonisers (British)
Brutalises colonised (Indians)
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak- “Third World”
Indian feminist
Argues against “hegemonic historiography”
Wants to move non western discourses in totally new spaces where difference is the norm and new “worlding of the world” is created.
Non west must create its own representation
Third world is:
Ø a creation of the west(British) that locks non-western cultures
Ø how the west views and deal with them into a imperial representation
Homi Bhabha “third space” and “cultural hybridity”
Idea of the “Brown Englishman”( Hideous version of ourselves undermines colonialism) Goodness Gracious Me, Kapoors like to be referred to as the Coopers which satires English culture.
Third space
Hybridity
East and West come together to create something new and different.
Examples of how Asians are inadequately represented:
Lack of Asians in management roles in the BBC. (Only 4% are ethnic minorities in management roles). This suggests (ex director general of BBC)(2002) Greg Dyke’s statement on the “BBC hideously white” is true.
Ethnic minorities still think it is harder for them to get jobs in the media then it is for a white people.
Asians in comedy roles- “brown clowns”- supports the hegemonic view/representation.
Few examples are:
Goodness Gracious Me
Mind your language
Bend it like Beckham
Euro centricity promoted by British as Christians are dominant in USA.
Islamophobia-Popular films ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to children's cartoons are portraying "crude and exaggerated" stereotypes of Muslims such as the Disney film Aladdin represents Arabs as "(cruel) ruthless caricatures (humorous illustration) "with "exaggerated and ridiculous accents”.” Good Arabs" including Aladdin are given American accents while the rest of the cast have "exaggerated and ridiculous Arab accents".- promotes American hegemony
British comedy East is East have helped demonise Muslims as violent, dangerous and threatening, and reinforce prejudices
Those Muslim figures who do appear in the media are seen as either holding extremist views or are "marginalised Muslims" who do not represent the Muslim community.
CBB7 Jermaine calling Jacquie “white trash”.- reflects class differenceJade, Danielle, Jo vs. Shilpa row- reflects racism/bullying/class divide/ignorance
Use and gratification- David Morley- how the audience read the text; dominant/hegemonic reading, oppositional reading & negotiated
Positive examples of how Asians are better represented:
♥ Brown pound- Asians are becoming more wealthy
♥ Asian culture is popular in mainstream- part of the mass media
♥ Self representation. Meera Syal and Gurinder Chada successful Asian women.
Gurinder Chada directed:
Bride & Prejudice (2004)
Third world is:
Ø a creation of the west(British) that locks non-western cultures
Ø how the west views and deal with them into a imperial representation
Homi Bhabha “third space” and “cultural hybridity”
Idea of the “Brown Englishman”( Hideous version of ourselves undermines colonialism) Goodness Gracious Me, Kapoors like to be referred to as the Coopers which satires English culture.
Third space
Hybridity
East and West come together to create something new and different.
Examples of how Asians are inadequately represented:
Lack of Asians in management roles in the BBC. (Only 4% are ethnic minorities in management roles). This suggests (ex director general of BBC)(2002) Greg Dyke’s statement on the “BBC hideously white” is true.
Ethnic minorities still think it is harder for them to get jobs in the media then it is for a white people.
Asians in comedy roles- “brown clowns”- supports the hegemonic view/representation.
Few examples are:
Goodness Gracious Me
Mind your language
Bend it like Beckham
Euro centricity promoted by British as Christians are dominant in USA.
Islamophobia-Popular films ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to children's cartoons are portraying "crude and exaggerated" stereotypes of Muslims such as the Disney film Aladdin represents Arabs as "(cruel) ruthless caricatures (humorous illustration) "with "exaggerated and ridiculous accents”.” Good Arabs" including Aladdin are given American accents while the rest of the cast have "exaggerated and ridiculous Arab accents".- promotes American hegemony
British comedy East is East have helped demonise Muslims as violent, dangerous and threatening, and reinforce prejudices
Those Muslim figures who do appear in the media are seen as either holding extremist views or are "marginalised Muslims" who do not represent the Muslim community.
CBB7 Jermaine calling Jacquie “white trash”.- reflects class differenceJade, Danielle, Jo vs. Shilpa row- reflects racism/bullying/class divide/ignorance
Use and gratification- David Morley- how the audience read the text; dominant/hegemonic reading, oppositional reading & negotiated
Positive examples of how Asians are better represented:
♥ Brown pound- Asians are becoming more wealthy
♥ Asian culture is popular in mainstream- part of the mass media
♥ Self representation. Meera Syal and Gurinder Chada successful Asian women.
Gurinder Chada directed:
Bride & Prejudice (2004)
Bend It Like Beckham (2002)
Bhaji on the Beach (1993)
Meera Syal produced:
Life Isn't All Ha Ha Hee Hee (2005) (TV)
Anita and Me (2002)
♥ 67% of Asians feel they are better represented on television now
♥ 78% of Asians think they are better represented on screen then ten years ago
General points of representation of Asians:
ETHNICITY:
Race: biological inheritance
Culture: (social) society that shape individual’s thoughts
Diversity policy:
Attempt to reflect diverse people whether it is TV, radio or online.
Cultural diversity network:
An organisation that tries to make sure that there are more ethnic minorities on TV
Colonial culture:
Domination of one group and believing their ideologies; refers back to the British Empire
E.g. everyone started speaking English
♥ 2001= 8.6% non white/ethnic minorities. Most ethnic minorities from London.
Meera Syal produced:
Life Isn't All Ha Ha Hee Hee (2005) (TV)
Anita and Me (2002)
♥ 67% of Asians feel they are better represented on television now
♥ 78% of Asians think they are better represented on screen then ten years ago
General points of representation of Asians:
ETHNICITY:
Race: biological inheritance
Culture: (social) society that shape individual’s thoughts
Diversity policy:
Attempt to reflect diverse people whether it is TV, radio or online.
Cultural diversity network:
An organisation that tries to make sure that there are more ethnic minorities on TV
Colonial culture:
Domination of one group and believing their ideologies; refers back to the British Empire
E.g. everyone started speaking English
♥ 2001= 8.6% non white/ethnic minorities. Most ethnic minorities from London.
♥ South Asians are the highest/largest ethnic minorities (2million+)
♥ Asians high birth-rate and immigration.
♥ A lot of Asians who work in the BBC often leave because they don’t fit in
MIND YOUR LANGUAGE: (sitcom)
♥ Prime time TV, Saturday night, (LWT/ITV 1977)
♥ 17 million viewers
♥ Brown people onscreen, they were stereotyped and exploited by exaggerating national characteristics.
♥ negative views/stereotypes of Asians which reinforces peoples assumptions
♥ less politically correct
♥ all nationalities equally stereotyped
♥ turned fear and anxiety into humour
♥ head was exaggerated because she was women
♥ people are laughing at the ethnic minorities and their misunderstandings
♥ the character speaking Urdu has no subtitles so the joke can be reversed as teacher can not understand the joke which suggest the text is slightly progressive
♥ Religious violence, Asians are unstable reinforcing Nandy’s theory on the other as well as reflecting the zeitgeist.
GOODNESS GRACIOUS ME (sketch show)
♥ Written by Meera Syal – self representation
♥ BBC 2 (public service broadcaster)- more of a niche audience, more middleclass, however appealed to mass audience
♥ Prime time show
♥ Making fun of English people in the restaurant scene as the Englishman has to conform to be accepted
♥ Using Indian words making the white audience outsiders
♥ Indian culture influenced by black street culture – Homi Bhabha “cultural hybridity”- loosing traditional values
♥ Using cultural myths about “the other” assumptions
Parodies and references in the show
♥ "The Six Million Rupee Man" - Parody of Six Million Dollar Man.
♥ "Skipinder: The Punjabi Kangaroo" - Parody of Skippy the Bush Kangaroo.
♥ "I'm a Punjabi Girl..." - Parody of Aqua's Barbie Girl song.
♥ "I want to live like Hindi people" - Parody of Pulp's Common People.
♥ "Asian Bride Shop" - Homage to Monty Python's Cheese Shop sketch and Dead Parrot sketch.
♥ "Maharajah's hotel" - Homage to Fawlty Towers.
♥ "The Delhi Tubbies" - Fictional Asian equivalent of the Teletubbies
Bandura (1965) Bobo doll experiment
Children are shown a film where an adult is attacking a Bobo doll. The adult is shown kicking, throwing, punching and hitting the Bobo doll with a mallet.
Children in group A are shown the adult being praised with sweets and lemonade after beating up the doll.
Children in group B are shown the adult being told off after beating up the doll.
Children in group C are just shown the film where the adult is attacking the doll.
After the film each child spent 10 minutes in a playroom with a Bobo doll. Children in group A and C showed same level of aggressive behaviour. Children in B showed less aggression as they extract the cognition that aggressive behaviour would be punished.
This experiment illustrates how audiences such as children are still passive and reinforces how the hypodermic model theory is still evident as the passive audience in this case the children imitated what they saw in the film showing how children pick up the hegemonic readings.
Children in group A are shown the adult being praised with sweets and lemonade after beating up the doll.
Children in group B are shown the adult being told off after beating up the doll.
Children in group C are just shown the film where the adult is attacking the doll.
After the film each child spent 10 minutes in a playroom with a Bobo doll. Children in group A and C showed same level of aggressive behaviour. Children in B showed less aggression as they extract the cognition that aggressive behaviour would be punished.
This experiment illustrates how audiences such as children are still passive and reinforces how the hypodermic model theory is still evident as the passive audience in this case the children imitated what they saw in the film showing how children pick up the hegemonic readings.
Thursday, May 17, 2007
Plan: (June ’02 b)
Compare the media portrayal of two social groups.
How the media portray women:
Television:
Stereotypes in Hollyoaks Carmel-blonde bimbo, Tina- clever/geeky and Michaela- troublemaker
Sitcoms like FRIENDS- use stereotypes buy role reversal as well to show the equality of men and women
Film:
Lack of women directors, so most movies are seen through a man’s perspective
Women stereotypes – “bimbo”, “geek”, “Madonna/whore” complex, “femme fatale”, “housewife”Women as powerless, passive, weak
However, James Bond, Casino Royal (2006) introduces “female gaze” shows society is pluralistic and promotes progressive values
Adverts:
Adverts- women shown with phallic objects
Newspaper/news:
Lack of women in news and politics -Token females in high jobs e.g. Rebekah Wade- successful women editor for “The Sun”
Most of the women in the media conform to the “male gaze”- Mulvey, women are objectified in newspaper “the sun”- Rupert Murdoch introduced pg3 when he re-launched the tabloid reinforces patriarchy.
Music:
Pussycat Dolls – conform to be objectified but sing songs promoting “girl power”
How the media portray Asians:
Television
Goodness Gracious Me-self representation- brown clowns- Stuart Hall
67% of Asians feel they are better represented on television now
Film
Islamophobia-Popular films ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to children's cartoons are portraying "crude and exaggerated" stereotypes of Muslims such as the Disney film Aladdin represents Arabs as "(cruel) ruthless caricatures (humorous illustration) "with "exaggerated and ridiculous accents”.” Good Arabs" including Aladdin are given American accents while the rest of the cast have "exaggerated and ridiculous Arab accents".- promotes American hegemony
Similarities:
Represented negatively
Are seen at “the other”
Placed in stereotypes
Differences:
Representations are becoming progressive this is because the media need to cater for all groups as if they don’t appeal to the Asians they are going to loose a target audience as audience.
How the media portray women:
Television:
Stereotypes in Hollyoaks Carmel-blonde bimbo, Tina- clever/geeky and Michaela- troublemaker
Sitcoms like FRIENDS- use stereotypes buy role reversal as well to show the equality of men and women
Film:
Lack of women directors, so most movies are seen through a man’s perspective
Women stereotypes – “bimbo”, “geek”, “Madonna/whore” complex, “femme fatale”, “housewife”Women as powerless, passive, weak
However, James Bond, Casino Royal (2006) introduces “female gaze” shows society is pluralistic and promotes progressive values
Adverts:
Adverts- women shown with phallic objects
Newspaper/news:
Lack of women in news and politics -Token females in high jobs e.g. Rebekah Wade- successful women editor for “The Sun”
Most of the women in the media conform to the “male gaze”- Mulvey, women are objectified in newspaper “the sun”- Rupert Murdoch introduced pg3 when he re-launched the tabloid reinforces patriarchy.
Music:
Pussycat Dolls – conform to be objectified but sing songs promoting “girl power”
How the media portray Asians:
Television
Goodness Gracious Me-self representation- brown clowns- Stuart Hall
67% of Asians feel they are better represented on television now
Film
Islamophobia-Popular films ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to children's cartoons are portraying "crude and exaggerated" stereotypes of Muslims such as the Disney film Aladdin represents Arabs as "(cruel) ruthless caricatures (humorous illustration) "with "exaggerated and ridiculous accents”.” Good Arabs" including Aladdin are given American accents while the rest of the cast have "exaggerated and ridiculous Arab accents".- promotes American hegemony
Similarities:
Represented negatively
Are seen at “the other”
Placed in stereotypes
Differences:
Representations are becoming progressive this is because the media need to cater for all groups as if they don’t appeal to the Asians they are going to loose a target audience as audience.
Plan: (June ’04 b)
It is argued that dominant media representations serve the interests of the powerful. Discuss with reference to one or more social group or place.
Social group: Women, Asians
Rupert Murdock controls most of the media- he gets the final say if he not happy with the editing of the paper.
Film male dominated industry thus women are still being objectified and conform to Mulvey’s theory on the male gaze and how they are primarily there “to-be-looked-at-ness”.
Asians placed in comedy roles to be successful.
Conservative values are traditional and reactionary, supporting the status quo. (Right wing- don’t like change)
Having a minority of women are shown in the news and politics as it suggests women are not intelligent enough or do not have a strong valid opinion like men.
Greg Dyke (ex-general of the BBC)- states how the media is still “hideously white”.
Producers of text like “Mind Your Language” reinforce negative stereotypes of Asians. This places them in the role of “the other” which reinforce Eurocentric stereotypes that promote the culture.
Keywords to use:
Hegemony
Patriarchy
Social group: Women, Asians
Rupert Murdock controls most of the media- he gets the final say if he not happy with the editing of the paper.
Film male dominated industry thus women are still being objectified and conform to Mulvey’s theory on the male gaze and how they are primarily there “to-be-looked-at-ness”.
Asians placed in comedy roles to be successful.
Conservative values are traditional and reactionary, supporting the status quo. (Right wing- don’t like change)
Having a minority of women are shown in the news and politics as it suggests women are not intelligent enough or do not have a strong valid opinion like men.
Greg Dyke (ex-general of the BBC)- states how the media is still “hideously white”.
Producers of text like “Mind Your Language” reinforce negative stereotypes of Asians. This places them in the role of “the other” which reinforce Eurocentric stereotypes that promote the culture.
Keywords to use:
Hegemony
Patriarchy
Plan: (Specimen Question, ’00 a)
What is there to be said for or against stereotyping in the media? Answer with reference to specific examples.
Define what a stereotyping is:
Stereotyping is categorising people into group based on a few common characteristics.
For:
Create humour
Short hand for the audience as producers to not have enough time to go into details for each character
Identify with the characters
Some stereotypes are true
Some stereotypes are challenged
Examples:
Television
In “sex and the city” Samantha takes on the role of “whore” but is not punished in the end which shows how the stereotypes are developing and being challenged. Additionally, it promotes women values and suggests society is now accepting that women have sexual needs and desires as well.
“The Simpsons” show Apu as a corner shop owner which to some extent is considered a true stereotype therefore giving an accurate representation of reality.
In “goodness gracious me” the audience are laughing at the characters but are laughing at how they mocking the two different cultures as in some cases they exaggerate cultural expectations too much to generate humour.
Against:
Reinforces misogyny
Reinforces patriarchy
Supports conservative ideologies
Maintains the “status quo”
Examples:
Television
Damsel in distress- women are represented as weak and passive (Propp- princess role- reward for the hero at the end)
Blonde Bimbo- women being represented as unintelligent this is represented in Hollyoaks (a contemporary soap) that shows the character Carmel reinforcing this stereotypical role.
Asians are placed in comedy roles this conforms to stereotypical representation and supports hegemonic views as for Asians to be successful they have to conform to the role of the “brown clown” (Stuart Hall). For example mind you language- humour is created and in most cases the audiences are laughing at the misunderstandings of the character and the characters.
Adverts
Housewife- women in a domestic servant role as cleaning products such shake and vac advert 1979 is aimed at women
Mothers – Iceland slogan “that’s why mums go Iceland”
Films
Madonna - reinforces how women should be maternal and innocent. This is illustrated in “Mere Jeevan Saathi” (2006)
Vamp/Whore- women who are sexually active are negative/bad reinforced in slasher films for example women who are sexually active are punished through them being killed. For example “Halloween” all the females having sex are killed.
Femme fatale- women who are powerful are dangerous. This is reinforced in film noir where this role first became evident and became a convention of having a seductive evil woman as it would offer narrative pleasures for the audience.
Ladette- main protagonist in bend it like beckham prefers football to girly things.
Bad Hysterical careerists- women choosing work over family in “Fatal Attraction”
Teenagers- rebellious represented in “Kidulthood”(2006) shows young females prostituting themselves reinforcing the stereotype of the “whore” as these young teenage girls are doing it for money for drugs, resulting in how contemporary youths are disobedient as they are engaging in anti- social behaviour i.e. using drugs.
Children cartoon films such as Aladdin portray Muslims in a negative way. For example, they have good Arab such as Aladdin given American accents to make his threatening and the rest of the cast are given “exaggerated and ridiculous accents to support the American hegemony.
Newspapers:
Women are only there to be looked-at-ness page 3 girls conform to this
However this could be interpreted in two ways. A second wave feminist would interpret this as
And a third wave feminist would interpret this as
All Asians are terrorist or supporters of terrorism is another new negative stereotype that has developed since September 11th giving a negative and inaccurate representation of Asians as well as making Asians conform to Nandy’s theory on “the other” as they are represented as chaotically violent, barbaric and religious. As a result of these representations moral panics are created through the news especially in British tabloid papers such as “The Sun”.
Define what a stereotyping is:
Stereotyping is categorising people into group based on a few common characteristics.
For:
Create humour
Short hand for the audience as producers to not have enough time to go into details for each character
Identify with the characters
Some stereotypes are true
Some stereotypes are challenged
Examples:
Television
In “sex and the city” Samantha takes on the role of “whore” but is not punished in the end which shows how the stereotypes are developing and being challenged. Additionally, it promotes women values and suggests society is now accepting that women have sexual needs and desires as well.
“The Simpsons” show Apu as a corner shop owner which to some extent is considered a true stereotype therefore giving an accurate representation of reality.
In “goodness gracious me” the audience are laughing at the characters but are laughing at how they mocking the two different cultures as in some cases they exaggerate cultural expectations too much to generate humour.
Against:
Reinforces misogyny
Reinforces patriarchy
Supports conservative ideologies
Maintains the “status quo”
Examples:
Television
Damsel in distress- women are represented as weak and passive (Propp- princess role- reward for the hero at the end)
Blonde Bimbo- women being represented as unintelligent this is represented in Hollyoaks (a contemporary soap) that shows the character Carmel reinforcing this stereotypical role.
Asians are placed in comedy roles this conforms to stereotypical representation and supports hegemonic views as for Asians to be successful they have to conform to the role of the “brown clown” (Stuart Hall). For example mind you language- humour is created and in most cases the audiences are laughing at the misunderstandings of the character and the characters.
Adverts
Housewife- women in a domestic servant role as cleaning products such shake and vac advert 1979 is aimed at women
Mothers – Iceland slogan “that’s why mums go Iceland”
Films
Madonna - reinforces how women should be maternal and innocent. This is illustrated in “Mere Jeevan Saathi” (2006)
Vamp/Whore- women who are sexually active are negative/bad reinforced in slasher films for example women who are sexually active are punished through them being killed. For example “Halloween” all the females having sex are killed.
Femme fatale- women who are powerful are dangerous. This is reinforced in film noir where this role first became evident and became a convention of having a seductive evil woman as it would offer narrative pleasures for the audience.
Ladette- main protagonist in bend it like beckham prefers football to girly things.
Bad Hysterical careerists- women choosing work over family in “Fatal Attraction”
Teenagers- rebellious represented in “Kidulthood”(2006) shows young females prostituting themselves reinforcing the stereotype of the “whore” as these young teenage girls are doing it for money for drugs, resulting in how contemporary youths are disobedient as they are engaging in anti- social behaviour i.e. using drugs.
Children cartoon films such as Aladdin portray Muslims in a negative way. For example, they have good Arab such as Aladdin given American accents to make his threatening and the rest of the cast are given “exaggerated and ridiculous accents to support the American hegemony.
Newspapers:
Women are only there to be looked-at-ness page 3 girls conform to this
However this could be interpreted in two ways. A second wave feminist would interpret this as
And a third wave feminist would interpret this as
All Asians are terrorist or supporters of terrorism is another new negative stereotype that has developed since September 11th giving a negative and inaccurate representation of Asians as well as making Asians conform to Nandy’s theory on “the other” as they are represented as chaotically violent, barbaric and religious. As a result of these representations moral panics are created through the news especially in British tabloid papers such as “The Sun”.
Monday, May 07, 2007
Plan: June 03a
Account for the popularity of one genre of your choice. Illustrate your answer with examples. (Explain why slasher films are popular)
Introduction:
Over the years, slasher films have become popular and developed starting with “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock) which was regarded as the “granddaddy of slasher films” that then became the template for slasher films to follow. This is down to several factors and according Altman’s theory by using the successful formula that previous successful slasher films share in common would make it a popular genre for the audience to consume as in each film they have the repetition which creates familiarity for the audience and the variation of repertoire elements so that the film is fresh for the audience to watch.
Audience pleasures:
Visceral pleasure of heart racing all slasher films
Intellectual pleasure in slasher films with enigma through the narrative as it keeps the audience guessing and engages them into the film. Example: Friday the 13th (Sean Cunningham, 1980) the killer is revealed right at the end and it is the mother which gives the slasher fans even more pleasure as they know through watching previous films like Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) how they use variation and will like the novelty aspect of the film.
As the primary audience are teenagers primarily girls who worry about things like sex are taking into account in the films narrative by promoting the ideologies it is wrong for girls to have sex and if they do they should be punished as in nearly every slasher up to scream the girls who have sex die. This reflects the inequalities between men and women which helps reinforces patriarchy. As men are not punished for sex in films like Psycho (1960), which regarded as the “granddaddy of slasher films” has a male hero Sam Loomis who was not punished for sex instead the audience identify with him and classify him as the Proppian “hero”.
Furthermore, slasher films are popular because they reflect what is going on in society for example:
The Ed Gein killings are portrayed in films like Psycho (1960), Texas chainsaw Massacre and Silence of the Lambs. This is linked to Psycho by Gein having the overpowering mother like Norman Bates which links to how Gein had a very close relationship with his mother in Freudian terms referred to as an oedipal relationship which was also another similarity highlighted in “Psycho.” This could be a reason for it popularity as Norman feelings could be considered to be crazy and the fact he loved her so much that he pretend she was still alive represents how he was considered as schizophrenic and society around that time were very interested in psychology so this could be a possible reason why it was popular. Furthermore, as the face of the psycho was humanise which made it scarier to some extent as it suggest there are people in the world like Norman Bates who are psychos.
Moral panics going on in society which influenced the “white flite” and this is reflected in films like “nightmare on elm street” which is set in a surban setting to show the middle class people could not run away from what they feared as it will turn up and takes it revenge upon them.
Another example of moral panic reflected in slasher genre is in Texas chainsaw Massacre (1974) which reflects the oil crisis in 1973, as that was one of the reasons how the teenagers become killed as they stop by an gas station.
Feminism as the character role of the “final girl” (Carol Clover) was introduced. Reflected in
“Friday the 13th”. Additionally, in contemporary slasher texts portrays a vast development of the “final girl” as in texts like
“Scream”(1996,Wes Craven) and “Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake”(2003, Marcus Nispel) the final girl is active in contrast to older texts where the girl has be more passive and takes on the role of the “damsel in distress” for instance in texts like 
“Halloween”(1978, John Carpenter) Laurie is saved by Dr Sam Loomis the detective, “Psycho”(1960, Alfred Hitchcock) Lila Crane is saved by Sam Loomis.
Issues and debates:
Hypodermic needle theory-
Uses and gratification- entertainment
Cultivation theory- audience are desensitised to violence partly due to censorship relaxation.
Slasher texts can be seen as progressive as male audience cross gender identify with the “final girl.”
Introduction:
Over the years, slasher films have become popular and developed starting with “Psycho” (1960, Alfred Hitchcock) which was regarded as the “granddaddy of slasher films” that then became the template for slasher films to follow. This is down to several factors and according Altman’s theory by using the successful formula that previous successful slasher films share in common would make it a popular genre for the audience to consume as in each film they have the repetition which creates familiarity for the audience and the variation of repertoire elements so that the film is fresh for the audience to watch.
Audience pleasures:
Visceral pleasure of heart racing all slasher films
Intellectual pleasure in slasher films with enigma through the narrative as it keeps the audience guessing and engages them into the film. Example: Friday the 13th (Sean Cunningham, 1980) the killer is revealed right at the end and it is the mother which gives the slasher fans even more pleasure as they know through watching previous films like Psycho (Alfred Hitchcock, 1960) how they use variation and will like the novelty aspect of the film.
As the primary audience are teenagers primarily girls who worry about things like sex are taking into account in the films narrative by promoting the ideologies it is wrong for girls to have sex and if they do they should be punished as in nearly every slasher up to scream the girls who have sex die. This reflects the inequalities between men and women which helps reinforces patriarchy. As men are not punished for sex in films like Psycho (1960), which regarded as the “granddaddy of slasher films” has a male hero Sam Loomis who was not punished for sex instead the audience identify with him and classify him as the Proppian “hero”.
Furthermore, slasher films are popular because they reflect what is going on in society for example:
The Ed Gein killings are portrayed in films like Psycho (1960), Texas chainsaw Massacre and Silence of the Lambs. This is linked to Psycho by Gein having the overpowering mother like Norman Bates which links to how Gein had a very close relationship with his mother in Freudian terms referred to as an oedipal relationship which was also another similarity highlighted in “Psycho.” This could be a reason for it popularity as Norman feelings could be considered to be crazy and the fact he loved her so much that he pretend she was still alive represents how he was considered as schizophrenic and society around that time were very interested in psychology so this could be a possible reason why it was popular. Furthermore, as the face of the psycho was humanise which made it scarier to some extent as it suggest there are people in the world like Norman Bates who are psychos.
Moral panics going on in society which influenced the “white flite” and this is reflected in films like “nightmare on elm street” which is set in a surban setting to show the middle class people could not run away from what they feared as it will turn up and takes it revenge upon them.
Another example of moral panic reflected in slasher genre is in Texas chainsaw Massacre (1974) which reflects the oil crisis in 1973, as that was one of the reasons how the teenagers become killed as they stop by an gas station.
Feminism as the character role of the “final girl” (Carol Clover) was introduced. Reflected in
“Friday the 13th”. Additionally, in contemporary slasher texts portrays a vast development of the “final girl” as in texts like “Scream”(1996,Wes Craven) and “Texas Chainsaw Massacre remake”(2003, Marcus Nispel) the final girl is active in contrast to older texts where the girl has be more passive and takes on the role of the “damsel in distress” for instance in texts like “Halloween”(1978, John Carpenter) Laurie is saved by Dr Sam Loomis the detective, “Psycho”(1960, Alfred Hitchcock) Lila Crane is saved by Sam Loomis.Issues and debates:
Hypodermic needle theory-
Uses and gratification- entertainment
Cultivation theory- audience are desensitised to violence partly due to censorship relaxation.
Slasher texts can be seen as progressive as male audience cross gender identify with the “final girl.”
Plan: Jan 06b
Recent developments in genre have included the emergence of parody, pastiche and hybrid forms. Show how such developments have influenced media texts.
Introduction:
Philip Brophy (1986) argues “modern horror genre is a saturated genre as audiences are over-familiar with the repertoire elements and their possible variations.” Therefore parody, pastiche and hybrid films give audience the familiar elements of previous slasher texts. For instance character roles are taken and used in new ways such as subverting the typical character role in texts such as “Scary Movie” (2000) creating humour for the teen audience.
Key texts:
Parody: “Scary Movie” (2000), “Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth” (2000) mocks other genres
Pastiche: “Scream” (1996) explicitly makes reference to previous slasher films as well as copying that certain style e.g. “Scream” copying the phone call scene from “when a stranger calls”.
Hybrid forms:
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986) consists of comedy elements
Freddy vs. Jason can be seen as a pastiche and a hybrid as it franchises the two villains too appeal to two groups of slasher fans moreover it makes reference to the previous Friday the 13th films and nightmare on elm street. Additionally, as villains like Freddy Kruger and Jason Vohrees have become merchandised through dolls would make them less threatening and take away the impact they once had therefore creating more slasher films about them would clearly be unsuccessful but using them in parodies and pastiches can be quite successful as the producers are using repetition through having familiar characters but varying the narrative.
“Imitation is of images from the past offered as nostalgic substitute for any real exploration of either the past or present.”- John Belton (1994)
Moreover, the producers rely on an active audience who have seen or have knowledge on previous slasher films so that they can understand the jokes and references about the other films giving them nostalgic and intellectual pleasures. E.g. in “Scream”
the phone call scene people who have seen the text discussed in the opening sequence would have a better reading of the text.
Genre is dynamic not static therefore parody, pastiche and hybrid forms can be seen as a novelty aspect.
The target audience have changed as most audience are desensitised to the gory graphic scenes shown in slasher films therefore just repeating again and again would make it boring for the audience and lead the genre into decline.(Metz cycle)
Hybrid forms help appeal to a wider audience which would target a mainstream audience.
In the text “Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth” (2000) explicitly states they are in a parody situation by explaining the rules of a parody situation. Those rules are:
Exaggerate everything.
Accept that the ridiculous is logical.
Sexual sight gags are always funny (especially with wacky sound effects)
Unlimited absurdity
Nothing is sacred (At this point, "The Killer" knocks down a cross off of a wall, killing a drunk girl who is passed out on the bed.)
Point out the obvious
Perpetuate painful stereotypes.
You can't have a successful parody without mocking contrived, confusing endings.
By talking about parodies the text is being Post modern by playing with conventions and being self referential.
Introduction:
Philip Brophy (1986) argues “modern horror genre is a saturated genre as audiences are over-familiar with the repertoire elements and their possible variations.” Therefore parody, pastiche and hybrid films give audience the familiar elements of previous slasher texts. For instance character roles are taken and used in new ways such as subverting the typical character role in texts such as “Scary Movie” (2000) creating humour for the teen audience.
Key texts:
Parody: “Scary Movie” (2000), “Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth” (2000) mocks other genres
Pastiche: “Scream” (1996) explicitly makes reference to previous slasher films as well as copying that certain style e.g. “Scream” copying the phone call scene from “when a stranger calls”.
Hybrid forms:
The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2 (1986) consists of comedy elementsFreddy vs. Jason can be seen as a pastiche and a hybrid as it franchises the two villains too appeal to two groups of slasher fans moreover it makes reference to the previous Friday the 13th films and nightmare on elm street. Additionally, as villains like Freddy Kruger and Jason Vohrees have become merchandised through dolls would make them less threatening and take away the impact they once had therefore creating more slasher films about them would clearly be unsuccessful but using them in parodies and pastiches can be quite successful as the producers are using repetition through having familiar characters but varying the narrative.“Imitation is of images from the past offered as nostalgic substitute for any real exploration of either the past or present.”- John Belton (1994)
Moreover, the producers rely on an active audience who have seen or have knowledge on previous slasher films so that they can understand the jokes and references about the other films giving them nostalgic and intellectual pleasures. E.g. in “Scream”
the phone call scene people who have seen the text discussed in the opening sequence would have a better reading of the text.Genre is dynamic not static therefore parody, pastiche and hybrid forms can be seen as a novelty aspect.
The target audience have changed as most audience are desensitised to the gory graphic scenes shown in slasher films therefore just repeating again and again would make it boring for the audience and lead the genre into decline.(Metz cycle)
Hybrid forms help appeal to a wider audience which would target a mainstream audience.
In the text “Shriek If You Know What I Did Last Friday the Thirteenth” (2000) explicitly states they are in a parody situation by explaining the rules of a parody situation. Those rules are:
Exaggerate everything.
Accept that the ridiculous is logical.
Sexual sight gags are always funny (especially with wacky sound effects)
Unlimited absurdity
Nothing is sacred (At this point, "The Killer" knocks down a cross off of a wall, killing a drunk girl who is passed out on the bed.)
Point out the obvious
Perpetuate painful stereotypes.
You can't have a successful parody without mocking contrived, confusing endings.
By talking about parodies the text is being Post modern by playing with conventions and being self referential.
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